The Law Code of King Alfred the Great

The Law Code of King Alfred the Great The Law Code of King Alfred the Great The Law Code of King Alfred the Great is the largest and best preserved piece of legal documentation made prior to the Norman conquest of 1066 [1], and the first surviving Anglo-Saxon law code since Ines, nearly two centuries earlier [2], making it an essential document in the study of late Anglo-Saxon law, culture and society. The documents usefulness as a historical source stems not only from its unique existence as a source of law for the Alfredian period, but also from the fact that it was written by Alfred himself; as noted by Wormald, Alfred was the only European king of the Early Middle Ages known to have written books [3], and therefore his Law Codes give historians a unique insight into the political thought of the later Anglo-Saxon kings and the legal system of ninth century England. Alfreds Law Code also reveals much about the character and personality of its author. For example, the fact that Alfred was unique among Early Medieval rulers in his extensive authorship of books and legal documents [4] shows the Kings commitment to learned activity and his understanding of the importance of written record in the efficient and successful running of his kingdom. It is also important to note that Alfreds Law Code was written at a time when no other English king had issued laws for nearly a hundred years [5]. The reasons for this sudden return to the issuing of written law are not expressly stated by Alfred, either in the Preface or Codes themselves, however it can be argued that by issuing his Law Code at such a time, Alfred was showing a genuine concern for the wellbeing of his people, in ensuring fairness and equality for all before the law. Study of Alfreds Law Code also reveals the author to be a pragmatist in his dealing with the law. For example, while it is clear Alfred would rather prevent the custom of blood feuds, he realises that the Anglo-Saxon world is one of violence, and the feud is a necessary, albeit distasteful, part of this. Therefore Alfred does not seek to make blood feuds illegal but instead to regulate them so as to minimise violence and bloodshed.[6] This practical approach to law-making is also shown in Alfreds preface to his Laws, where he states that a man has no need of law books if he judges fairly and equally [7]. However the fact that Alfred is writing this in his Law Code shows that although in an ideal world such a code would not be needed, he accepts that men are only human and many will require guidance as to what is right and wrong. The Law Code of King Alfred the Great is the largest and best preserved piece of legal documentation made prior to the Norman conquest of 1066 [1], and the first surviving Anglo-Saxon law code since Ines, nearly two centuries earlier [2], making it an essential document in the study of late Anglo-Saxon law, culture and society.justice. [9] This theory is also supported by Alfreds own introduction to his translation of Pope Gregorys Pastoral Care, in which he speaks of his respect for the Anglo-Saxon kings of the Golden Age of the 7th Century who not only maintained their peace, morality and authority at home but also extended their territory outside [10]. This suggests that Alfreds intentions in writing his Law Code were born out of a desire to return to a time when, in his eyes, things were better. However Alfreds use of the phrase extended their territory outside [11], should also be noted, as it implies other intentions than those immediately obvious from the accounts of Asser and others, including Alfred himself. Therefore, while Alfred may have been motivated to write his Laws for the good of his people, it is important to remember that the King had other reasons for writing his Code and the laws serve other purposes other than the direct administration of justice. One such unofficial reason for Alfreds writing of his Law Code, it can be argued, was to assert his royal power and ensure the loyalty of his subjects in a legal document that could not be disputed [12], thereby safeguarding his own position and consolidating his hold over the kingdom. This intentional inclusion of laws designed to ensure loyalty from Alfreds subjects can be seen in the wording of the Law Codes themselves, where treason is portrayed as the most unholy and unforgivable of sins only for treachery to a lord they dared not declare any mercyhe [Christ] charged everyone to love his lord as himself [13]. The reference to Christ in this quote shows the severity of the crimes of treason and treachery, as even the mercy of Christ is not afforded to those who commit these sins. The theory that Alfreds Laws were intended to secure his own position, is given weight by the underlying threat of rebellion that was present for much of Alfreds reign, especially in the case of Aethelwo ld, rival to the throne and the son of Alfreds predecessor, who led a rebellion in 899[14], which could have been a direct influence upon the emphasis placed on loyalty to the king and lords found in Alfreds Code. The underlying political agenda of Alfreds Laws is also an important aspect of the text. It is argued by Wormald that Alfreds respectful mentions of the laws of Offa and Aethelbert (previous kings of Mercia and Kent respectively) in his preface to his own laws, and his statement that he is influenced by them in his own law making, is an attempt to remind Mercians and Kentishmen of his concern for their traditions'[15]. This pandering to the traditions of the other English kingdoms suggests that Alfred was subtly attempting to enhance his own power over the rest of England outside of Wessex, ultimately leading to him being accepted as Anglo Rex, the title eventually bestowed upon his successors. However as Pratt reminds us, the fact that Alfreds Law Code contains a political agenda need not make it irrelevant as a source of honest legal intentions [16]. Pratts theory is supported by the inclusion in Alfreds Law Code the laws of one of his predecessors, Ine, whose laws deal primarily w ith theft, trading and agricultural matters. [17] In contrast to this Alfreds laws deal mostly with the breaking of oaths, injuries and sexual offences  [18], and so Alfred can be seen to be filling in the blanks in Ines original laws, therefore honestly trying to better the current legal system. Religious imagery and language features very heavily in Alfreds Law Codes and there are several arguments as to why this is. Wallace-Hadrill argues that the main reason for the sustained religious imagery in the Law Codes is due to the medieval perception that kingship was a divine right and Alfreds use of religious imagery is another attempt to assert his authority and show his right to the throne, thus making any sin committed against him a sin against God. [19] Similarly it is argued that the use of religious imagery by Alfred is due to the lack of an effective way of enforcing the law in Alfreds kingdom and an authority greater than the king or any earthly lord was needed to ensure social order [20]. However it can also be argued that the sustained religious imagery in the Law Codes is nothing more than the product of a deeply Christian society, where the natural law of God forms the basis for all perceptions of right and wrong, therefore it is only natural that religion features extensively in a book of law. In conclusion Alfreds law code is a synthesis of the laws of several other Anglo-Saxon kings [21], along with his own work, created with the intention of codifying and clarifying existing laws, exerting royal authority and promoting the King as leader not only of Wessex but of the English people. Bibliography R. Abels, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo Saxon England (Essex, 1998) J. R. C. Hall, A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (London, 4th ed. 1960) S. Keynes and M. Lapidge, trans. Alfred the Great: Assers Life of Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London, 1983) D. Pratt, The Political Thought of King Alfred the Great, (Cambridge, 2007) S. Reynolds, Medieval Law, in P. Linehan and J. Nelson (eds), The Medieval World (Oxon, 2001) A. P. Smyth, King Alfred the Great (Oxford, 1995) E. G. Stanley, On the Laws of King Alfred: The End of the Preface and the Beginning of the Laws, in J. Roberts, J. Nelson, M. Godden (eds), Alfred the Wise (Cambridge, 1997) M. H. Turk (ed.), The Legal Code of Alfred the Great (Boston, 1883) J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (London, 1971) D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents Vol. 1 (London, 1955) P. Wormald, The Ninth Century, in J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo Saxons (London, 1991) P. Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, Vol. 1: Legislation and its Limits. (Oxford, 1999) [1] P. Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, Vol. 1: Legislation and its Limits. (Oxford, 1999), p. 265 [2] P. Wormald, The Ninth Century, in J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo Saxons (London, 1991), p.134 [3] Ibid., p. 135 [4] Ibid. [5] J.M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (London, 1971), p. 148 [6] R. Abels, Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo Saxon England (Essex, 1998), p.276 [7] D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents Vol. 1 (London, 1955), p.373 [8] S. Keynes and M. Lapidge, trans, Alfred the Great: Assers Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources (London, 1983), p.45 [9] Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p.331 [10] Keynes and Lapidge, Assers Life of King Alfred p. 25 [11] Ibid. [12] Ibid. p.39 [13] Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p. 373 [14] Wormald, The Ninth Century p. 155 [15] Ibid. p.157 [16] D. Pratt, The Political Thought of King Alfred the Great, (Cambridge, 2007), p. 217 [17] Ibid. p. 220 [18] Ibid [19] Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship p.144 [20] Abels, War, Kingship and Culture p. 277 [21] A. P. Smyth, King Alfred the Great (Oxford, 1995), p. 238

Saving Ourselves – Shark Hunting

Two-thirds of world’s surface is water, and over 80% of life on Earth lives in the ocean. Ocean plays a main role in regulating climate and feeding much of the planet. But in past a hundred years people were destroying the balance in the ocean and the ecosystem. One of the major activities is illegal shark poaching. Every year 30 to 70 million sharks are killed to support a growing worldwide trade in their fins and other products. Now, more than three hundred species of sharks are endangered. Shark-finning became a profits industry due to the increasing demand for shark-fin soup in Asia. â€Å"One pound of fin is worth more than $200US and the shark-fin industry is a billion-dollar juggernaut. †(Sharkwater) The shark-fin soup had been around for centuries, but only in the last two decades that it boomed in popularity. It is a symbol of wealth, and served as a sign of respect. Sharks-fins soup is a delicacy in Asia, which is utterly ludicrous given that the fins themselves are tasteless and merely add texture. Yong) And people believe that sharks don’t get sick as easily as other animals do. They also think they have magical power to heal and people can be stronger from eating shark-fins soup. The cartilage is also being sold as a cancer or arthritis treatment; however, here is no scientific backing to this at all. Over 90% of the shark population in the world is gone now, and soon there won’t be any left, if people keep killing sharks. (Sharkwater) Ev ery day people is just talking about saving pandas, elephants and bears, but here is no any international regulations to protect sharks. Why? It is because we’ve been told in our whole life, since we’re a kid, sharks are dangerous. We’re warned if we swim too far into the ocean. Most information of sharks that people hear about is from media. For instance, afraid of white shark is based on the movie Jaws, and the misconception is still floating around. However, the fact is sharks do not eat people, and they rarely bite human beings and hardly have really serious bites. Although in the odd case where someone dies, it’s usually because of the loss of blood, not because the shark ate the person. Sharkwater) Sharks kill 5 people each year, elephants kill 100. Even more people die from soda pop machines than sharks do. There is nothing like what we’re told. There is nothing like what we think. There is nothing like what we believe. â€Å"One animal that we fear the most is the one we can’t live without. †(Sharkwater) They’ve been here for more than 400 million years, 150 million years before the dinosaurs, when life had just begun on land. Sharks control the population below them, eliminating species that were easy prey and creating new ones. They are perfect predators that keep balance in the underwater world. The top predators are fundamental in controlling the structure and the functioning of the ecosystems. As we know, carbon dioxide is the global-warming gas and plankton converts it to oxygen, providing 70% of the oxygen we breathe on land. Without sharks to prey the animals at bottom of the food chain, they could grow out of control consuming the plankton that we depend on for survival. (Sharkwater) Life on land depends on life in the ocean, so do us. One the big reason shark poaching continues to go on is because we don’t see it. Because we don’t see people are poaching sharks, cutting off their fins and throwing them back into the ocean; without fins they can’t breathe, then die. Because we don’t see the corruption between the government and sharks-fin Mafia, hundreds of millions shark-fins were dried on the roof without any restrictions. Because we don’t see every day the shark population is declining, more than three hundred species of sharks face misfortune. We don’t like spiders and snakes but puppy and seals. Once we see sharks in a different light, we can change our mind. Stop illegal shark poaching and promulgated regulations is not only saving the sharks but saving ourselves as well. We’re not the god, we can’t shape the world. What we can do now is to call everyone to stop eating shark-fins, to against the illegal shark poaching, and to save the planet from ourselves and our future. Work Citied Sharkwater. Dir. Rob Stewart. † 2006, Film. Yong, Ed. â€Å"Shark-hunting harms animals at bottom of the food chain. † wordpress. com (2007): n. pag. Web. 14 Feb 2011. .

How To Lose Weight

At its most basic, losing weight is about burning more calories than what you eat. That seems simple enough, but if it were really that simple, none of us would have a weight problem. Too often we take drastic measures to see results, such as diets, pills or those weird fitness gadgets on infomercials that promise us instant success. Maybe you lose weight but what happens when you go off that diet or stop that crazy workout program? You gain it all back and more. The real secret to weight loss is to make small, lasting changes. The key is to forget about instant results and settle in for the long run.According to studies, to lose one pound of fat, you must burn approximately 3500 calories over and above what you already burn doing daily activities. That sounds like a lot of calories and you certainly wouldn't want to try to burn 3500 calories in one day. However, by taking it step-by-step, you can determine just what you need to do each day to burn or cut out those extra calories. By calculating your basal metabolic rate, you are able to calculate the amount of calories your body needs to maintain basic bodily functions like breathing and digestion. This is the minimum number of calories you need to eat each day.Also, calculate your activity level. For a week or so, keep an activity journal and use a calorie calculator to figure out how many calories you burn while sitting, standing, exercising, lifting weights, and the like throughout the day. Another, easier option is to wear a heart rate monitor that calculates calories burned. After a week, add your totals for each day and average them out to get a general idea of how many calories you burn each day. Then, keep track of how many calories you eat. For at least a week, enter and track your calories to write down what you eat and drink each day.Be as accurate as possible, measuring when you need to or looking up nutritional information for restaurants, if you eat out. After a week, add your totals for each day and average them out to get a general idea of how many calories you eat each day. Lastly, add it up. Take your basal metabolic rate number and add your activity calories. Then subtract your food calories from that total. If you're eating more than your basal metabolic rate plus your activity calories, you're at risk for gaining weight. When you want to know how to lose weight it comes down to planning.Plan to drink a lot more water, it will make you pee more often but will also clean you out and give you move energy. You also have to get more exercise and by exercise I mean try to get one hour of exercise of any kind in a day. This needs to be exercise that you like and not exercise that just feels like work as that will not be sustainable. As far as eating goes you will need to get back to those core eating habits of eating fruit and vegetables and reducing the amount of heavy carbs like rice and potatoes and make sure to eat often. Eating smaller meals more often will keep that m etabolism up for you.Finally if you want to know the real secret of how to lose pounds you need to worry about why you are trying to lose weight. On those days where it is really tough to diet or exercise or make good decisions then you need to be very clear what the heck this weight loss sacrifice is for. Is it going to make you healthier? Or do you want to fit into smaller clothes? Or is it a goal to prove that you are in control of yourself? All of these reasons and more are important. Write your reasons down and post them up everywhere. Make sure that you never forget the why of how to lose pounds.

What Is an Elastic Collision

An elastic collision is a situation where multiple objects collide and the total kinetic energy of the system is conserved, in contrast to an inelastic collision, where kinetic energy is lost during the collision. All types of collision obey the law of conservation of momentum. In the real world, most collisions result in loss of kinetic energy in the form of heat and sound, so its rare to get physical collisions that are truly elastic. Some physical systems, however, lose relatively little kinetic energy so can be approximated as if they were elastic collisions. One of the most common examples of this is billiard balls colliding or the balls on​ Newtons cradle. In these cases, the energy lost is so minimal that they can be well approximated by assuming that all kinetic energy is preserved during the collision. Calculating Elastic Collisions An elastic collision can be evaluated since it conserves two key quantities: momentum and kinetic energy. The below equations apply to the case of two objects that are moving with respect to each other and collide through an elastic collision. m1 Mass of object 1m2 Mass of object 2v1i Initial velocity of object 1v2i Initial velocity of object 2v1f Final velocity of object 1v2f Final velocity of object 2Note: The boldface variables above indicate that these are the velocity vectors. Momentum is a vector quantity, so the direction matters and has to be analyzed using the tools of vector mathematics. The lack of boldface in the kinetic energy equations below is because it is a scalar quantity and, therefore, only the magnitude of the velocity matters.Kinetic Energy of an Elastic CollisionKi Initial kinetic energy of the systemKf Final kinetic energy of the systemKi 0.5m1v1i2 0.5m2v2i2Kf 0.5m1v1f2 0.5m2v2f2Ki Kf0.5m1v1i2 0.5m2v2i2 0.5m1v1f2 0.5m2v2f2Momentum of an Elastic CollisionPi Initial momentum of the systemPf Final momentum of the systemPi m1 * v1i m2 * v2iPf m1 * v1f m2 * v2fPi Pfm1 * v1i m2 * v2i m1 * v1f m2 * v2f You are now able to analyze the system by breaking down what you know, plugging for the various variables (dont forget the direction of the vector quantities in the momentum equation!), and then solving for the unknown quantities or quantities.